What Kind Of Animal Is A Sea Cucumber

Form of echinoderms

Ocean cucumber Temporal range: Middle Ordovician-present PreꞒ Ꞓ O South D C P T J 1000 Pg N
A ocean cucumber (Actinopyga echinites), displaying its feeding tentacles and tube feet
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Echinodermata
Subphylum:	Echinozoa
Class:	Holothuroidea Blainville, 1834
Orders
Apodida Brandt, 1835 †Arthrochirotida Seilacher, 1961 Dendrochirotida Grube, 1840 Elasipodida Théel, 1882 Holothuriida Miller, Kerr, Paulay, Reich, Wilson, Carvajal & Rouse, 2017 Molpadida Haeckel, 1896 Persiculida Miller, Kerr, Paulay, Reich, Wilson, Carvajal & Rouse, 2017 Synallactida Miller, Kerr, Paulay, Reich, Wilson, Carvajal & Rouse, 2017

Sea cucumbers are echinoderms from the grade Holothuroidea (). They are marine animals with a leathery skin and an elongated torso containing a single, branched gonad. Bounding main cucumbers are found on the sea floor worldwide. The number of holothurian ()^{[1] [two]} species worldwide is about 1,717,^[3] with the greatest number being in the Asia-Pacific region.^[4] Many of these are gathered for human consumption and some species are cultivated in aquaculture systems. The harvested product is variously referred to every bit trepang, namako, bêche-de-mer, or balate. Sea cucumbers serve a useful role in the marine ecosystem as they help recycle nutrients, breaking down detritus and other organic matter, after which leaner can continue the decomposition process.^[four]

Like all echinoderms, sea cucumbers accept an endoskeleton just below the skin, calcified structures that are ordinarily reduced to isolated microscopic ossicles (or sclerietes) joined by connective tissue. In some species these can sometimes be enlarged to flattened plates, forming an armour. In pelagic species such as Pelagothuria natatrix (order Elasipodida, family Pelagothuriidae), the skeleton is absent and there is no calcareous ring.^[5]

Body of water cucumbers are named for their resemblance to the fruit of the cucumber plant.

Overview

Sea cucumber : a -Tentacles, b - Cloaca, c - Ambulacral anxiety on the ventral side, d -Papillae on the back

Almost body of water cucumbers, equally their proper noun suggests, have a soft and cylindrical trunk, more or less lengthened, rounded off and occasionally fatty in the extremities, and generally without solid appendages. Their shape ranges from almost spherical for "bounding main apples" (genus Pseudocolochirus) to serpent-like for Apodida or the classic sausage-shape, while others resemble caterpillars. The mouth is surrounded by tentacles, which can be pulled back inside the brute.^[six] Holothurians mensurate mostly between 10 and 30 centimetres long, with extremes of some millimetres for Rhabdomolgus ruber and upward to more than 3 metres for Synapta maculata. The largest American species, Holothuria floridana, which abounds but below low-h2o marker on the Florida reefs, has a book of well over 500 cubic centimeters (31 cu in),^[vii] and 25–30 cm (10–12 in) long. Near possess v rows of tube anxiety (called "podia"), simply Apodida lacks these and moves by itch; the podia tin can be of smooth aspect or provided with fleshy appendages (like Thelenota ananas). The podia on the dorsal surface generally have no locomotive role, and are transformed into papillae. At one of the extremities opens a rounded rima oris, generally surrounded with a crown of tentacles which tin exist very complex in some species (they are in fact modified podia); the anus is postero-dorsal.

Holothurians do not wait like other echinoderms at kickoff glance, because of their tubular body, without visible skeleton nor hard appendixes. Furthermore, the fivefold symmetry, classical for echinoderms, although preserved structurally, is doubled here past a bilateral symmetry which makes them look like chordates. Nevertheless, a primal symmetry is still visible in some species through five 'radii', which extend from the rima oris to the anus (just like for sea urchins), on which the tube feet are fastened. There is thus no "oral" or "aboral" face up as for sea stars and other echinoderms, but the animal stands on one of its sides, and this face is called trivium (with three rows of tube feet), while the dorsal face is named bivium. A remarkable feature of these animals is the "catch" collagen that forms their body wall.^{[Notes 1]} This tin can be loosened and tightened at volition, and if the animal wants to squeeze through a modest gap, it can essentially liquefy its trunk and cascade into the space. To keep itself rubber in these crevices and cracks, the ocean cucumber will hook up all its collagen fibers to make its body business firm again.^[8]

The virtually common fashion to carve up the subclasses is by looking at their oral tentacles. Social club Apodida accept a slender and elongate body lacking tube feet, with up to 25 simple or pinnate oral tentacles. Aspidochirotida are the almost common sea cucumbers encountered, with a strong body and 10–30 leaflike or shield-like oral tentacles. Dendrochirotida are filter-feeders, with plump bodies and 8–xxx branched oral tentacles (which can be extremely long and complex).

• 

  Details of the oral fissure with its tentacles.

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Anatomy

Sea cucumbers are typically ten to xxx cm (4 to 12 in) in length, although the smallest known species are only 3 mm (0.12 in) long, and the largest can reach 3 meters (10 ft). The body ranges from most spherical to worm-like, and lacks the arms plant in many other echinoderms, such as starfish. The inductive end of the creature, containing the mouth, corresponds to the oral pole of other echinoderms (which, in most cases, is the underside), while the posterior end, containing the anus, corresponds to the aboral pole. Thus, compared with other echinoderms, ocean cucumbers can be said to be lying on their side.^[9]

Body plan

The body of a holothurian is roughly cylindrical. It is radially symmetrical along its longitudinal centrality, and has weak bilateral symmetry transversely with a dorsal and a ventral surface. As in other Echinozoans, at that place are five ambulacra separated by five ambulacral grooves, the interambulacra. The ambulacral grooves conduct iv rows of tube feet but these are macerated in size or absent-minded in some holothurians, especially on the dorsal surface. The two dorsal ambulacra brand upwardly the bivium while the three ventral ones are known equally the trivium.^[10]

At the anterior cease, the oral cavity is surrounded by a ring of tentacles which are unremarkably retractable into the mouth. These are modified tube feet and may exist uncomplicated, branched or arborescent. They are known every bit the introvert and posterior to them there is an internal band of big calcareous ossicles. Fastened to this are five bands of muscle running internally longitudinally along the ambulacra. At that place are also round muscles, contraction of which crusade the creature to elongate and the introvert to extend. Anterior to the ossicles lie further muscles, wrinkle of which cause the introvert to retract.^[10]

The body wall consists of an epidermis and a dermis and contains smaller calcareous ossicles, the types of which are characteristics which aid to identify different species. Inside the body wall is the coelom which is divided by three longitudinal mesenteries which surroundings and support the internal organs.^[ten]

Digestive system

A bounding main cucumber atop gravel, feeding

A pharynx lies backside the mouth and is surrounded by a ring of x calcareous plates. In most sea cucumbers, this is the only substantial part of the skeleton, and it forms the point of attachment for muscles that can retract the tentacles into the body for safety as for the principal muscles of the body wall. Many species possess an oesophagus and stomach, but in some the pharynx opens directly into the intestine. The intestine is typically long and coiled, and loops through the body iii times before terminating in a cloacal chamber, or directly as the anus.^[9]

Nervous organization

Sea cucumbers have no true encephalon. A band of neural tissue surrounds the oral crenel, and sends nerves to the tentacles and the pharynx. The animate being is, withal, quite capable of functioning and moving about if the nervus ring is surgically removed, demonstrating that it does non take a cardinal function in nervous coordination. In addition, 5 major fretfulness run from the nerve ring downward the length of the body below each of the ambulacral areas.^[9]

About body of water cucumbers accept no distinct sensory organs, although there are various nerve endings scattered through the peel, giving the fauna a sense of touch and a sensitivity to the presence of light. There are, withal, a few exceptions: members of the Apodida order are known to possess statocysts, while some species possess small-scale center-spots nigh the bases of their tentacles.^[9]

Respiratory system

Sea cucumbers extract oxygen from water in a pair of "respiratory trees" that branch in the cloaca just inside the anus, and then that they "breathe" past drawing h2o in through the anus then expelling it.^{[11] [12]} The trees consist of a series of narrow tubules branching from a mutual duct, and lie on either side of the digestive tract. Gas exchange occurs across the thin walls of the tubules, to and from the fluid of the main trunk cavity.

Together with the intestine, the respiratory trees also human activity every bit excretory organs, with nitrogenous waste material diffusing across the tubule walls in the form of ammonia and phagocytic coelomocytes depositing particulate waste.^[nine]

Circulatory systems

Like all echinoderms, sea cucumbers possess both a water vascular system that provides hydraulic pressure to the tentacles and tube feet, assuasive them to move, and a haemal system. The latter is more complex than that in other echinoderms, and consists of well-developed vessels as well as open up sinuses.^[nine]

A key haemal band surrounds the pharynx adjacent to the ring culvert of the water vascular system, and sends off boosted vessels along the radial canals beneath the ambulacral areas. In the larger species, additional vessels run in a higher place and below the intestine and are connected past over a hundred small muscular ampullae, acting as miniature hearts to pump claret around the haemal organisation. Additional vessels surround the respiratory trees, although they contact them only indirectly, via the coelomic fluid.^[nine]

Indeed, the blood itself is substantially identical with the coelomic fluid that bathes the organs directly, and also fills the water vascular system. Phagocytic coelomocytes, somewhat similar in function to the white blood cells of vertebrates, are formed within the haemal vessels, and travel throughout the trunk cavity also equally both circulatory systems. An additional form of coelomocyte, not constitute in other echinoderms, has a flattened discoid shape, and contains hemoglobin. As a issue, in many (though not all) species, both the blood and the coelomic fluid are red in colour.^[9]

Sea cucumber ossicles (here "wheels" and "anchors")

Vanadium has been reported in high concentrations in holothurian blood,^[13] all the same researchers have been unable to reproduce these results.^[14]

Locomotive organs

Like all echinoderms, sea cucumbers possess pentaradial symmetry, with their bodies divided into five nearly identical parts around a primal axis. However, because of their posture, they have secondarily evolved a degree of bilateral symmetry. For example, because one side of the body is typically pressed against the substratum, and the other is not, there is usually some difference between the ii surfaces (except for Apodida). Like sea urchins, most sea cucumbers have 5 strip-like ambulacral areas running along the length of the torso from the rima oris to the anus. The three on the lower surface accept numerous tube feet, frequently with suckers, that allow the animal to crawl along; they are called trivium. The two on the upper surface take under-developed or vestigial tube feet, and some species lack tube feet birthday; this face is called bivium.^[9]

In some species, the ambulacral areas can no longer be distinguished, with tube feet spread over a much wider surface area of the trunk. Those of the order Apodida accept no tube feet or ambulacral areas at all, and couch through sediment with muscular contractions of their body similar to that of worms, however five radial lines are by and large still obvious along their body.^[ix]

Even in those body of water cucumbers that lack regular tube feet, those that are immediately around the mouth are e'er present. These are highly modified into retractile tentacles, much larger than the locomotive tube feet. Depending on the species, bounding main cucumbers have between ten and thirty such tentacles and these can have a wide variety of shapes depending on the diet of the animal and other weather.^[9]

Many sea cucumbers have papillae, conical fleshy projections of the body wall with sensory tube feet at their apices.^[15] These tin can even evolve into long antennae-similar structures, especially on the abyssal genus Scotoplanes.

Endoskeleton

Echinoderms typically possess an internal skeleton equanimous of plates of calcium carbonate. In most sea cucumbers, nevertheless, these have become reduced to microscopic ossicles embedded beneath the skin. A few genera, such as Sphaerothuria, retain relatively large plates, giving them a scaly armour.^[9]

Life history and behaviour

Habitat

Benthopelagic bounding main cucumbers, such as this Enypniastes, are often dislocated with jellyfish, have webbed pond structures enabling them to swim upwardly off the surface of the seafloor and journey equally much equally 1,000 1000 (iii,300 ft) upward the water column

Castilian dancer (Benthodytes sp.), another swimming bounding main cucumber, hovering at 2789 meters by the Davidson Seamount

Sea cucumbers tin be found in groovy numbers on the deep seafloor, where they often brand up the majority of the animate being biomass.^[16] At depths deeper than 8.9 km (5.five mi), sea cucumbers comprise ninety% of the total mass of the macrofauna.^[17] Sea cucumbers form large herds that move beyond the bathygraphic features of the body of water, hunting nutrient. The body of some deep water holothurians, such equally Enypniastes eximia, Peniagone leander and Paelopatides confundens,^[18] is made of a tough gelatinous tissue with unique properties that makes the animals able to control their own buoyancy, making it possible for them to either live on the body of water floor or to actively swim ^[19] or float over it in social club to move to new locations,^[twenty] in a style similar to how the group Torquaratoridae floats through h2o.

Holothurians appear to be the echinoderms best adapted to extreme depths, and are withal very diversified beyond 5,000 m deep: several species from the family Elpidiidae ("bounding main pigs") can be found deeper than nine,500 g, and the record seems to be some species of the genus Myriotrochus (in particular Myriotrochus bruuni), identified downwards to x,687 meters deep.^[21] In more shallow waters, sea cucumbers can form dense populations. The strawberry sea cucumber (Squamocnus brevidentis) of New Zealand lives on rocky walls around the southern coast of the S Island where populations sometimes achieve densities of 1,000 animals per square meter (93 /sq ft). For this reason, one such area in Fiordland is called the strawberry fields.^[22]

Locomotion

Some abyssal species in the deep-sea order Elasipodida accept evolved to a "benthopelagic" behaviour: their body is nearly the same density as the water around them, so they can brand long jumps (upwardly to 1,000 k (iii,300 ft) high), before falling slowly back to the ocean floor. Most of them take specific swimming appendages, such as some kind of umbrella (like Enypniastes), or a long lobe on top of the torso (Psychropotes). Only 1 species is known equally a true completely pelagic species, that never comes close to the bottom: Pelagothuria natatrix.^[23]

Diet

Holothuroidea are generally scavengers, feeding on debris in the benthic zone of the bounding main. Exceptions include some pelagic cucumbers and the species Rynkatorpa pawsoni, which has a commensal human relationship with deep-sea anglerfish.^[24] The diet of most cucumbers consists of plankton and decaying organic matter found in the bounding main. Some sea cucumbers position themselves in currents and grab food that flows by with their open tentacles. They also sift through the bottom sediments using their tentacles. Other species can dig into bottom silt or sand until they are completely buried. They so extrude their feeding tentacles, fix to withdraw at any hint of danger.

In the Due south Pacific sea cucumbers may be found in densities of 40 individuals per foursquare meter (33 /sq yd). These populations tin process 19 kilograms of sediment per foursquare meter (34 lb /sq yd) per twelvemonth.^[25]

The shape of the tentacles is generally adapted to the diet, and to the size of the particles to exist ingested: the filter-feeding species more often than not accept complex arborescent tentacles, intended to maximize the surface area available for filtering, while the species feeding on the substratum will more often need digitate tentacles to sort out the nutritional material; the detritivore species living on fine sand or mud more than often need shorter "peltate" tentacles, shaped like shovels. A single specimen tin can swallow more than 45 kg of sediment a yr, and their excellent digestive capacities permit them to pass up a finer, purer and homogeneous sediment. Therefore, sea cucumbers play a major office in the biological processing of the sea bed (bioturbation, purge, homogenization of the substratum etc.).

• 

  Mouth of a Holothuria sp., showing peltate tentacles.

• 

  Faeces of an holothurian. This participates in sediment homogenization and purification.

Advice and sociability

Reproduction

Most sea cucumbers reproduce by releasing sperm and ova into the ocean water. Depending on weather condition, one organism tin produce thousands of gametes. Sea cucumbers are typically dioecious, with split up male and female individuals, but some species are protandric. The reproductive system consists of a single gonad, consisting of a cluster of tubules emptying into a single duct that opens on the upper surface of the animal, close to the tentacles.^[ix]

At least 30 species, including the carmine-chested ocean cucumber (Pseudocnella insolens), fertilize their eggs internally so selection up the fertilized zygote with one of their feeding tentacles. The egg is then inserted into a pouch on the adult's body, where information technology develops and eventually hatches from the pouch every bit a juvenile body of water cucumber.^[26] A few species are known to brood their young within the body cavity, giving birth through a small rupture in the body wall shut to the anus.^[nine]

Development

In all other species, the egg develops into a gratuitous-swimming larva, typically after around 3 days of evolution. The get-go stage of larval development is known equally an auricularia, and is simply around 1 mm (39 mils) in length. This larva swims by means of a long band of cilia wrapped effectually its body, and somewhat resembles the bipinnaria larva of starfish. Every bit the larva grows it transforms into the doliolaria, with a barrel-shaped body and three to v dissever rings of cilia. The pentacularia is the third larval stage of sea cucumber, where the tentacles appear. The tentacles are usually the first adult features to appear, before the regular tube feet.^[9]

Symbiosis and commensalism

Numerous small-scale animals can live in symbiosis or commensalism with sea cucumbers, also as some parasites.

Some cleaner shrimps tin alive on the tegument of holothurians, in particular several species of the genus Periclimenes (genus which is specialized in echinoderms), in particular Periclimenes imperator.^[27] A multifariousness of fish, about commonly pearl fish, accept evolved a commensalistic symbiotic relationship with sea cucumbers in which the pearl fish will live in sea cucumber's cloaca using it for protection from predation, a source of food (the nutrients passing in and out of the anus from the h2o), and to develop into their developed stage of life. Many polychaete worms (family Polynoidae^[28]) and crabs (similar Lissocarcinus orbicularis) take also specialized to use the mouth or the cloacal respiratory trees for protection past living inside the sea cucumber.^[29] Nevertheless, holothurians species of the genus Actinopyga have anal teeth that preclude visitors from penetrating their anus.^[30]

Body of water cucumbers can also shelter bivalvia every bit endocommensals, such equally Entovalva sp.^[31]

• 

• 

Predators and defensive systems

Tonna perdix, a selective predator of tropical sea cucumbers

A sea cucumber in Mahé, Seychelles ejects gummy filaments from the anus in self-defence.

Sea cucumbers are ofttimes ignored past nearly of the marine predators considering of the toxins they contain (in detail holothurin) and considering of their often spectacular defensive systems. Even so, they remain a prey for some highly specialized predators which are non affected by their toxins, such as the big mollusks Tonna galea and Tonna perdix, which paralyzes them using powerful toxicant before swallowing them completely.^[32] Some other less specialized and opportunist predators can also prey on sea cucumbers sometimes when they cannot find whatever improve food, such as certain species of fish (triggerfish, pufferfish) and crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, hermit venereal).

Some species of coral-reef ocean cucumbers inside the order Aspidochirotida can defend themselves by expelling their sticky cuvierian tubules (enlargements of the respiratory tree that bladder freely in the coelom) to entangle potential predators. When startled, these cucumbers may expel some of them through a tear in the wall of the cloaca in an autotomic procedure known as evisceration. Replacement tubules abound back in one and a half to 5 weeks, depending on the species.^{[four] [33]} The release of these tubules can also be accompanied past the discharge of a toxic chemical known as holothurin, which has similar properties to lather. This chemical tin can kill animals in the vicinity and is one more than method past which these sedentary animals can defend themselves.^[eight]

Estivation

If the water temperature becomes too high, some species of ocean cucumber from temperate seas tin aestivate. While they are in this state of dormancy they stop feeding, their gut atrophies, their metabolism slows down and they lose weight. The body returns to its normal state when conditions ameliorate.^[4]

Phylogeny and classification

Elasipodida similar this "sea grunter" Scotoplanes have a translucent body with specific appendages; they live in the abyss.

Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers) are ane of 5 extant classes that make up the phylum Echinodermata. This is one of the well-nigh distinctive and diverse phyla, ranging from starfish to urchins to bounding main cucumbers and many other organisms. The echinoderms are mainly distinguished from other phyla past their body plan and organization. While the organisms in this phylum may not all wait the same from the outside, their make-upwards is another story. The earlliest sea cucumbers are known from the middle Ordovician, over 450 million years ago.^[34]

All echinoderms share three main characteristics. When mature, echinoderms have a pentamerous radial symmetry. While this can easily be seen in a sea star or brittle star, in the body of water cucumber it is less distinct and seen in their 5 primary tentacles. The pentamerous radial symmetry can also be seen in their five ambulacral canals.^[35] The ambulacral canals are used in their water vascular system which is another characteristic that binds this phylum together.

The h2o vascular organization develops from their heart coelom or hydrocoel. Echinoderms utilise this system for many things including motility by pushing water in and out of their podia or "tube feet". Echinoderms tube anxiety (including sea cucumbers) tin can be seen aligned forth the side of their axes.

While echinoderms are invertebrates, significant they practise not have a spine, they do all take an endoskeleton that is secreted past the mesenchyme. This endoskeleton is composed of plates called ossicles. They are always internal only may only be covered by a sparse epidermal layer like in sea urchin's spines. In the bounding main cucumber the ossicles are only found in the dermis, making them a very supple organism. For most echinoderms, their ossicles are found in units making upwardly a three dimensional structure. However, in body of water cucumbers the ossicles are establish in a two-dimensional network.^[36]

All echinoderms likewise possess anatomical feature(southward) called mutable collagenous tissues, or MCTs.^[37] Such tissues tin can rapidly alter their passive mechanical properties from soft to strong under the control of the nervous system and coordinated with muscle activity. Different echinoderm classes use MCTs in different ways. The asteroids, ocean stars, tin can detach limbs for cocky-defense and then regenerate them. The Crinoidea, sea fans, can go from stiff to limp depending on the current for optimal filter feeding. The Echinoidea, sand dollars, use MCTs to grow and supervene upon their rows of teeth when they need new ones. The Holothuroidea, sea cucumbers, utilise MCTs to eviscerate their gut as a self-defense force response. MCTs can be used in many ways only are all similar at the cellular level and in mechanics of function. A common trend in the uses of MCTs is that they are more often than not used for cocky-defense mechanisms and in regeneration.^[37]

Holothurian classification is complex and their paleontological phylogeny relies on a limited number of well-preserved specimens. The modern taxonomy is based first of all on the presence or the shape of sure soft parts (podia, lungs, tentacles, peripharingal crown) to determine the primary orders, and secondarily on the microscopic exam of ossicles to determine the genus and the species. Gimmicky genetic methods have been helpful in clarifying their classification.

Taxonomic classification co-ordinate to Globe Register of Marine Species:

• subclass Actinopoda Ludwig, 1891
  • order Dendrochirotida Grube, 1840
    • family Cucumariidae Ludwig, 1894
    • family Cucumellidae Thandar & Arumugam, 2011
    • family Heterothyonidae Pawson, 1970
    • family †Monilipsolidae Smith & Gallemí, 1991
    • family Paracucumidae Pawson & Fell, 1965
    • family unit Phyllophoridae Östergren, 1907
    • family Placothuriidae Pawson & Fell, 1965
    • family Psolidae Burmeister, 1837
    • family unit Rhopalodinidae Théel, 1886
    • family Sclerodactylidae Panning, 1949
    • family Vaneyellidae Pawson & Savage, 1965
    • family Ypsilothuriidae Heding, 1942
  • order Elasipodida Théel, 1882
    • family Elpidiidae Théel, 1882
    • family Laetmogonidae Ekman, 1926
    • family †Palaeolaetmogonidae Reich, 2012
    • family unit Pelagothuriidae Ludwig, 1893
    • family Psychropotidae Théel, 1882
  • order Holothuriida Miller, Kerr, Paulay, Reich, Wilson, Carvajal & Rouse, 2017
    • family Holothuriidae Burmeister, 1837
    • family Mesothuriidae Smirnov, 2012
  • order Molpadida Haeckel, 1896
    • family Caudinidae Heding, 1931
    • family Eupyrgidae Semper, 1867
    • family unit Gephyrothuriidae Koehler & Vaney, 1905
    • family Molpadiidae Müller, 1850
  • order Persiculida Miller, Kerr, Paulay, Reich, Wilson, Carvajal & Rouse, 2017
    • family unit Gephyrothuriidae Koehler & Vaney, 1905
    • family Molpadiodemidae Miller, Kerr, Paulay, Reich, Wilson, Carvajal & Rouse, 2017
    • family Pseudostichopodidae Miller, Kerr, Paulay, Reich, Wilson, Carvajal & Rouse, 2017
  • order Synallactida Miller, Kerr, Paulay, Reich, Wilson, Carvajal & Rouse, 2017
    • family Deimatidae Théel, 1882
    • family Stichopodidae Haeckel, 1896
    • family Synallactidae Ludwig, 1894
• subclass †ArthrochirotaceaSmirnov, 2012
  • gild †Arthrochirotida Brandt, 1835
    • family †Palaeocucumariidae Frizzell & Exline, 1966
• subclass Paractinopoda Ludwig, 1891
  • order Apodida Brandt, 1835 Small text
    • family Chiridotidae Östergren, 1898
    • family Myriotrochidae Théel, 1877
    • family Synaptidae Burmeister, 1837

Relation to humans

Food

Dried sea cucumbers in a Japanese pharmacy

To supply the markets of Southern China, Makassar trepangers traded with the Indigenous Australians of Arnhem Country from at to the lowest degree the 18th century and probably earlier. This is the offset recorded instance of trade betwixt the inhabitants of the Australian continent and their Asian neighbours.^[38]

At that place are many commercially important species of sea cucumber that are harvested and dried for consign for employ in Chinese cuisine as hoisam.^[39] Some of the more commonly found species in markets include:^{[39] [40]}

• Holothuria nobilis
• Thelenota ananas
• Actinopyga echinites
• Actinopyga palauensis
• Holothuria scabra
• Holothuria fuscogilva
• Actinopyga mauritiana
• Stichius japonicus
• Apostichopus californicus
• Acaudina molpadioides
• Isostichopus fuscus

Medicine

According to the American Cancer Society, although it has been used in traditional Asian folk medicine for a variety of ailments, "there is piddling reliable scientific prove to support claims that sea cucumber is constructive in treating cancer, arthritis, and other diseases" simply research is examining "whether some compounds made by ocean cucumbers may be helpful against cancer".^[41]

Diverse pharmaceutical companies emphasize gamat, the traditional medicinal usage of this animate being.^[42] Extracts are prepared and made into oil, cream or cosmetics. Some products are intended to be taken internally.

A review article establish that chondroitin sulfate and related compounds establish in sea cucumbers can help in treating joint-pain, and that stale sea cucumber is "medicinally effective in suppressing arthralgia".^[43]

Another report suggested that ocean cucumbers contain all the fatty acids necessary to play a potentially active role in tissue repair.^[44] Sea cucumbers are under investigation for use in treating ailments including colorectal cancer.^[45] Surgical probes made of nanocomposite material based on the sea cucumber accept been shown to reduce encephalon scarring.^[46] One study establish that a lectin from Cucumaria echinata dumb the development of the malaria parasite when produced past transgenic mosquitoes.^[47]

• 

  "Teripang" in a marketplace in Asia.

• 

  Sea cucumber in sauce in Cathay.

• 

  Kripik teripang, Indonesian sea cucumber cracker.

Procurement

Sea cucumbers are harvested from the environment, both legally and illegally, and are increasingly farmed via aquaculture. The harvested animals are ordinarily dried for resale.^[48] In 2016, prices on Alibaba ranged upwards to $1,000/kg.^[49]

Commercial harvest

In recent years, the sea cucumber industry in Alaska has increased due to increased need for the skins and muscles to People's republic of china.^[l] Wild bounding main cucumbers are defenseless by divers. Wild Alaskan body of water cucumbers have higher nutritional value and are larger than farmed Chinese sea cucumbers. Larger size and college nutritional value has immune the Alaskan fisheries to continue to compete for market share.^[50]

One of Australia's oldest fisheries is the collection of sea cucumber, harvested by divers from throughout the Coral Sea in far Due north Queensland, Torres Straits and Western Australia. In the late 1800s as many every bit 400 divers operated from Cook Town, Queensland.

Overfishing of sea cucumbers in the Cracking Barrier Reef is threatening their population.^[51] Their popularity equally luxury seafood in East Asian countries poses a serious threat.^[52]

Blackness marketplace

As of 2013 a thriving black market place was driven by demand in Red china where 1 lb (0.5 kg) at its meridian might have sold for the equivalent of Usa$300^[48] and a unmarried body of water cucumber for well-nigh US$160.^[53] A crackdown by governments both in and out of China reduced both prices and consumption, especially among government officials who had been known to eat (and were able to afford purchasing) the most expensive and rare species.^[53] In the Caribbean Sea off the shores of the Yucatán Peninsula nearly fishing ports such equally Dzilam de Bravo, illegal harvesting had devastated the population and resulted in disharmonize as rival gangs struggled to control the harvest.^[48]

Aquaculture

Overexploitation of sea cucumber stocks in many parts of the world provided motivation for the development of sea cucumber aquaculture in the early on 1980s. The Chinese and Japanese were the starting time to develop successful hatchery technology on Apostichopus japonicus, prized for its loftier meat content and success in commercial hatcheries.^[54] Using techniques pioneered past the Chinese and Japanese, a second species, Holothuria scabra, was cultured for the first fourth dimension in India in 1988.^[55] In recent years Australia, Indonesia, New Caledonia, Republic of the maldives, Solomon Islands and Vietnam have successfully cultured H. scabra using the same technology, and now civilisation other species.^[54]

Conservation

In 2020, the Indian regime created the world'southward first sea cucumber conservation surface area, the Dr KK Mohammed Koya Sea Cucumber Conservation Reserve, to protect the bounding main cucumber species. In India, the commercial harvesting and transportation of bounding main cucumbers is banned.^{[56] [57]}

In popular culture

• Edgar Allan Poe's merely novel, The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket (1838), includes in its 20th chapter a long, detailed description of bounding main cucumbers, which the narrator calls biche de mer.
• In Kir Bulychov'southward science-fiction novella, "Half a Life", a human beingness kidnapped by conflicting machines described her fellow alien prisoners as "trepangs".
• The first motility of French composer Erik Satie's Embryons desséchés is titled "D'Holothournie". It is said to emulate the "purring" of the Holothourian.
• Body of water cucumbers take inspired thousands of haiku in Japan, where they are called namako (海鼠), written with characters that can exist translated as "sea mice" (an case of gikun). In English translations of these haiku, they are usually chosen "sea slugs». Co-ordinate to the Oxford English Dictionary, the English term "sea slug" was originally applied to holothurians during the 18th century. The term is at present applied to several groups of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks that accept no shell or only a very reduced crush, including the nudibranchs. Virtually i,000 Japanese holothurian haiku translated into English appear in the book Rise, Ye Body of water Slugs! by Robin D. Gill.^[58]
• Nobel laureate poet Wisława Szymborska wrote a verse form which mentions holothurians, titled "Autotomy".
• In the volume John Dies at the Cease, the grapheme Amy Sullivan was nicknamed "Cucumber" by the narrator/author when the two were children. This is causeless past other characters to have a sexual connotation just is really a reference to her frequent nausea. The name is in reference to a ocean cucumber's use of vomiting as a method of self-defense.
• A descriptive passage in American novelist Cormac McCarthy's 1985 anti-Western Blood Meridian likens cactus embers to holothurians: "In the thorn forest through which they'd passed the niggling desert wolves yapped and on the dry patently before them others answered and the wind fanned the coals that he watched. The bones of cholla that glowed there in their incandescent basketry pulsed like burning holothurians in the phosphorous night of the ocean's deeps."

Come across likewise

• Gamat
• Trepanging

References

Informational notes

1. ^ "Grab" collagen has two states, soft and stiff, that are under neurological control.Jose del Castillo and David Southward. Smith. (1996) "We Still Invoke Friction and Occam's Razor to Explain Grab in the Spines of Eucidaris Tribuloides." Biological Bulletin 190:243-244

Citations

1. ^ "holothurian". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
2. ^ "holothurian". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.
3. ^ Paulay, G. (2014). "Holothuroidea". World Annals of Marine Species . Retrieved 2 March 2014.
4. ^ ^{a b c d} Du, H.; Bao, Z.; Hou, R.; Wang, S.; Su, H.; et al. (2012). "Transcriptome Sequencing and Label for the Sea Cucumber Apostichopus japonicus (Selenka, 1867)". PLOS One. seven (3): e33311. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...733311D. doi:x.1371/journal.pone.0033311. PMC3299772. PMID 22428017.
5. ^ Reich, Mike (30–31 January 2006). Lefebvre, B.; David, B.; Nardin, E.; Poty, Eastward. (eds.). "Cambrian holothurians? – The early fossil record and development of Holothuroidea" (PDF). Journées Georges Ubaghs: 36–37. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 25, 2009.
6. ^ Walters, Martin; Johnson, Jinny (2003). Encyclopedia of Animals. Marks and Spencer p.50.c. p. 68. ISBN978-one-84273-964-8.
7. ^ For an example, in Charles Edward Lincoln, "Variation development and growth in Holothuria floridana" Biometrika six.ii–iii July 1908:279.
8. ^ ^{a b} Piper, Ross (2007). Boggling Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals . Greenwood Press. ISBN978-0-313-33922-6.
9. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j grand l thou north o} Barnes, Robert D. (1982). Invertebrate Zoology. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 981–997. ISBN978-0-03-056747-6.
10. ^ ^{a b c} Cucumaria frondosa Archived 2011-09-03 at the Wayback Automobile Invertebrate beefcake online. ed2012-02-12.
11. ^ "Holothurians or body of water cucumbers". Retrieved 2007-10-03 .
12. ^ Ingram, Jocie (2006-06-sixteen). "Knowing Nature... Absurd as a Ocean Cucumber". Archived from the original on 2007-10-21. Retrieved 2007-x-03 .
13. ^ Phillips, Alexander (1918). A Possible Source of Vanadium in Sedimentary Rocks. Princeton Academy. p. 473.
14. ^ Ciereszko, L.; Ciereszko, E; Harris, E; Lane, C (1962). "On the Occurrence of Vanadium in Holothurians". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. 7 (ane–2): 127–9. doi:ten.1016/0010-406X(62)90034-8. PMID 14021342.
15. ^ "Marine Species Identification Portal : North Australian Sea Cucumbers : Glossary : PapillaMarine". Retrieved 12 June 2015.
16. ^ Miller, Nat. "Body of water Cucumbers". Retrieved 2007-x-03 .
17. ^ "Answers - The Nigh Trusted Place for Answering Life'south Questions". Answers.com . Retrieved 12 June 2015.
18. ^ "Google Translate". Retrieved 12 June 2015.
19. ^ Blue Planet Discovery Aqueduct
20. ^ Carney, Bob (2007-06-xviii). "The Kingdom of the Echinoderm". Retrieved 2007-10-03 .
21. ^ Mah, Christopher 50. (8 April 2014). "What are the Deepest known echinoderms ?". The Echinoblog.
22. ^ Alcock, Niki (2003). "Sheddingnew light on the humble ocean cucumber". Aquatic Biodiversity & Biosecurity Update (iii). Retrieved 2007-x-03 .
23. ^ Mah, Christopher L. (2012-09-eighteen). "Abyssal Swimming Body of water Cucumbers and the "most bizarre holothurian species in existence" !". The Echinoblog.
24. ^ Brusca, R.C.; Brusca, M.J. (1990). Invertebrates . Massachusetts: SinauerAssociates. ISBN978-0-87893-097-v.
25. ^ Murphy, Richard C. (2002). Coral Reefs: Cities Under TheSeas. The Darwin Press, Inc. p. 36. ISBN978-0-87850-138-0.
26. ^ Branch GM, Griffiths CL, Co-operative ML and Beckley LE(2005) Two Oceans ISBN 0-86486-672-0
27. ^ Mah, Christopher L. (1 October 2013). "Venereal & Shrimps that Live in Sea Cucumber Anuses". The Echinoblog. .
28. ^ Mah, Christopher 50. (22 January 2014). "Worms & Snails that Live On/In Sea Cucumbers!". The Echinoblog.
29. ^ Toonen, Rob, Ph.D. (March 2003). "Aquarium Invertebrates". Advanced Aquarist's Online Magazine. ii (iii). Retrieved 2007-10-03 .
30. ^ Mah, Christopher (xi May 2010). "When Fish Live in your Cloaca & How Anal Teeth are Of import: The Pearlfish-Sea Cucumber Relationship". The Echinoblog.
31. ^ Mah, Christopher L. (31 January 2010). "Sea cucumbers got fish that live in their anus and CLAMS that live in their pharynx! (but non at the same time)". The Echinoblog.
32. ^ Philippe Bourjon & Sébastien Vasquez (2016). "Predation past the gastropod Tonna perdix (Gastropoda: Tonnoidea) on the holothurian Actinopyga echinites (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea) on a reef of Réunion" (PDF). SPC Beche-de-mer Data Bulletin. 36. {{cite periodical}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
33. ^ Flammang, Patrick; Ribesse, Jerome; Jangoux, Michel (2002-12-01). "Biomechanics of adhesion in sea cucumber Cuvierian tubules (Echinodermata, Holothuroidea)". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 42 (6): 1107–1115. doi:10.1093/icb/42.6.1107. PMID 21680394.
34. ^ Miller, Allison K.; Kerr, Alexander M.; Paulay, Gustav; Reich, Mike; Wilson, Nerida G.; Carvajal, Jose I.; Rouse, Greg W. (June 2017). "Molecular phylogeny of extant Holothuroidea (Echinodermata)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 111: 110–131. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2017.02.014. ISSN 1055-7903. PMID 28263876.
35. ^ Smirnov, A. V. (2014-12-01). "Body of water cucumbers symmetry (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea)". Paleontological Journal. 48 (12): 1215–1236. doi:10.1134/S0031030114120107. ISSN 0031-0301. S2CID 84952228.
36. ^ Elsevier. "Chemical Zoology V3 - 1st Edition". world wide web.elsevier.com. Archived from the original on 2017-12-06. Retrieved 2017-12-05 .
37. ^ ^{a b} Wilkie, I. C. (2005). "Mutable collagenous tissue: overview and biotechnological perspective". Progress in Molecular and Subcellular Biology. 39: 221–250. doi:10.1007/three-540-27683-1_10. ISBN978-3-540-24402-8. ISSN 0079-6484. PMID 17152700.
38. ^ MacKnight, CC (1976). The Voyage to Marege: Macassan Trepangers in Northern Australia. Melbourne University Press. ISBN978-0-522-84088-nine. Tippett, A. R. "The Voyage to Marege: Macassan Teripangers in Northern Australia".
39. ^ ^{a b} Purcell, Steven W.; Samyn, Yves; Conand, Chantal (2012). Commercially important sea cucumbers of the world. FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes. Rome: Nutrient and Agriculture Organisation, United Nations. ISBN978-92-5-106719-2. ISSN 1020-8682.
40. ^ Ramofafia, C.; Byrne, M.; Battaglene, S. C. (2003). "Development of iii commercial sea cucumbers, Holothuria scabra, H. fuscogilva and Actinopyga mauritiana: larval structure and growth". Marine and Freshwater Research. 54 (v): 657–667. doi:10.1071/MF02145. ISSN 1323-1650.
41. ^ "Sea Cucumber". American Cancer Society. Nov 2008. Archived from the original on July 14, 2010. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
42. ^ Pangestuti, Ratih; Arifin, Zainal (2018-07-01). "Medicinal and health benefit furnishings of functional sea cucumbers". Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine. 8 (3): 341–351. doi:10.1016/j.jtcme.2017.06.007. ISSN 2225-4110. PMC6035309. PMID 29992105.
43. ^ Bordbar, Sara; Anwar, Farooq; Saari, Nazamid (ten October 2011). "High-Value Components and Bioactives from Body of water Cucumbers for Functional Foods—A Review". Marine Drugs. 9 (10): 1761–1805. doi:10.3390/md9101761. PMC3210605. PMID 22072996.
44. ^ Fredalina, B. D.; Ridzwan, B. H.; Zainal Abidin, A. A.; Kaswandi, Chiliad. A.; Zaiton, H.; Zali, I.; Kittakoop, P.; Mat Jais, A. M. (October 1999). "Fatty acid compositions in local body of water cucumber, Stichopus chloronotus, for wound healing". General Pharmacology. 33 (four): 337–340. doi:10.1016/S0306-3623(98)00253-5. PMID 10523072.
45. ^ Bordbar, Southward.; Anwar, F.; Saari, N. (2011). "Loftier-value components and bioactives from sea cucumbers for functional foods—a review". Marine Drugs. nine (10): 1761–805. doi:x.3390/md9101761. PMC3210605. PMID 22072996.
46. ^ Harris, J. P.; Capadona, J. R.; Miller, R. H.; Healy, B. C.; Shanmuganathan, K.; Rowan, S. J.; Weder, C.; Tyler, D. J. (2011). "Mechanically adaptive intracortical implants improve the proximity of neuronal cell bodies". Journal of Neural Engineering. 8 (half-dozen): 066011. Bibcode:2011JNEng...8f6011H. doi:10.1088/1741-2560/8/6/066011. PMC3386315. PMID 22049097.
47. ^ Yoshida S, Shimada Y, Kondoh D, et al. (2007). "Hemolytic C-Type Lectin CEL-Iii from Sea Cucumber Expressed inTransgenic Mosquitoes Impairs Malaria Parasite Evolution". PLOS Pathogens. 3 (12): e192. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.0030192. PMC2151087. PMID 18159942.
48. ^ ^{a b c} Zabludovsky, Karla (March xix, 2013). "Quest for Illegal Gain at the Sea Bottom Divides Fishing Communities". The New York Times . Retrieved March twenty, 2013.
49. ^ 代艳. "Sea cucumbers slither into US market". world wide web.chinadaily.com.cn . Retrieved 2018-06-22 .
50. ^ ^{a b} Ess, Charlie. "Wild product's versatility could push price beyond $ii for Alaska dive fleet". National Fisherman. Archived from the original on 2009-01-22. Retrieved 2008-08-01 .
51. ^ "Overfishing threatens sea slugs: report". The Australian. AAP. March 6, 2014. Retrieved November 17, 2014.
52. ^ Purcell, Steven W.; Polidoro, Beth A.; Hamel, Jean-François; Gamboa, Ruth U.; Mercier, Annie (five March 2014). "The toll of being valuable: predictors of extinction risk in marine invertebrates exploited as luxury seafood". Proceedings of the Purple Society B: Biological Sciences. 281 (1781): 20133296. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.3296. PMC3953849. PMID 24598425.
53. ^ ^{a b} "China'southward Sea Cucumber Crackdown: President Xi Jinping puts a stop to elites' dining on rarefied and mystical delicacy". Vocativ.com. June 25, 2013. Archived from the original on January 16, 2017. Retrieved September 12, 2016.
54. ^ ^{a b} James, B. D. (2004).Captive convenance of the sea cucumber, Holothuria scabra, from India. In Lovatelli, A. (comp./ed.); Conand, C.; Purcell, South.; Uthicke, South.; Hamel, J.-F.; Mercier, A. (eds.) Advances in bounding main cucumber aquaculture and management. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 463. Rome, FAO. 2004.425p.
55. ^ James, D. B., Gandhi, A. D., Palaniswamy, N., & Rodrigo, J. X. (1994).Techniques and Culture of the Body of water-cucumber Holothuria scabra. CMFRI Special Publication(57),one-40.
56. ^ Badri Chatterjee (29 Feb 2020). "Earth's commencement ocean cucumber conservation area in Lakshadweep". Hindustan Times . Retrieved 22 July 2020.
57. ^ KA Shaji (13 May 2020). "Lakshadweep gets earth'south first sea cucumber conservation reserve to adjourn smuggling into China". Scroll . Retrieved 23 July 2020.
58. ^ Gill, RobinD.Ascent, Ye Body of water Slugs!. Paraverse Press, 2003, ISBN 0-9742618-0-vii

External links

• Data related to Holothuroidea at Wikispecies

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_cucumber

Posted by: fergusonpainarompat1996.blogspot.com

Share this post